The History of Electroplating and a Historical Review ...

The history of electroplating is a curious mixture of mistakes, observations, serendipity and experimental development, enmeshed and entwined with the discovery of electricity in the late 18th century.

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Bill NebioloJoin me as I review the fascinating history of our industry and its metamorphosis during the last 238-years. I will also provide a brief history of our flagship society, the NASF.

Have you ever wondered who was the first individual to electroplate something? Have you ever heard the term Galvanic action and pondered its origin? Are you aware that the French Emperor Napoleon played a role in our industry? Who discovered the first nickel brightener? These are just a few of the fascinating tidbits that will be shared in this fascinating, light-hearted and enjoyable presentation.

The History of Electroplating

Luigi GalvaniLuigi Galvani, was born in Bologna, Italy on September 9, 1737.16 As a young man Galvani was interested in the field of theology. But encouraged by his parents to study the sciences, he instead enrolled at the University of Bologna in 1755 and received his Baccalaureate in Science in 1759.16

Following his father’s preference for medicine, he then pursued; as a graduate student the field of physiology and was awarded a medical degree in 1762. In 1781, the new and exciting science of the time was the recent discovery and study of electricity. In 1774, Galvani read a paper published by three authors; Leopoldo Caldani, Felice Fontana and Tommaso Laghi, who found that muscles in frogs, could be activated by the application of electrical stimulation.16

Curious of the claims in this paper, Galvani began his own series of experiments on severed frog legs, seeking to duplicate the findings of his peers and understand the phenomenon. 

A 1781 Drawing from Galvani’s notebook.This image; from Galvani’s laboratory notebook, shows that from 1774 to 1781 he used a hand-cranked static electricity generator and Leyden jar in his experiments. Touching the sciatic nerve in a severed frog’s leg; with a scalpel that had picked-up a charge from the Leyden jar, Galvani noted that the frog’s legs would indeed contract.16

Continuing his experiments, Galvani made an interesting discovery. After pinning a frog’s leg to his lab table with a wrought iron nail; and before he connected the copper probe to the Leyden jar, he accidentally touched the frog’s sciatic nerve. To his surprise the frog’s leg contracted. Galvani; however was perplexed. How could this be since he hadn’t yet electrified his copper probe? He repeated the procedure with the same result and eventually concluded erroneously that the frog itself was its own source of electricity.2, 3, 5, 16

Italian physician; Luigi Galvani, had discovered what he called “animal electricity.”5 He claimed that an electrical fluid within the frog’s body was carried to the muscles by its nerves.5 After additional experimentation, Galvani determined that by connecting any two different metal probes in series with wires inserted into a frog’s leg, he could stimulate the leg to contract.5, 16 

Alessandro Volta

Alessandro VoltaIn 1791, Galvani published the results of his experimentation and erroneous conclusion that the frog itself was the source of its own electricity.5,16 At the University in Padua, Italy, Italian physicist; Alessandro Volta, read Galvani’s paper and began to expand upon Galvani’s animal electricity work. Volta eventually replaced the frog’s leg with a brine-soaked piece of paper. In doing so, Volta was able to detect the same flow of electricity that Galvani had detected, as long as the two probes that he used to connect to the brine-soaked paper in series, were made from dissimilar metals.2, 3, 5, 16 

Volta also determined that if the two probes were of identical metal then there would be no flow of electricity. Volta had actually developed the first wet cell battery or as it was known at the time, a Voltaic Pile.3 

Galvani notebook image of contracting leg.It was Volta who realized that the frog’s leg in Galvani’s experiments; served as both the electrolyte; or carrier of the electrical current, and as the detector of the current, when the leg contracted.3

The Voltaic Pile generates electrical current due to the difference in electrochemical potential between two different elements. This phenomenon is known as EMF; or, electromotive force. The further the separation between two different elements the larger the electromotive force that pair can generate when connected in series.2, 3 By experimenting with different metals, Volta was able to generate a chart of the possible voltage potentials when anodes and cathodes of different metals are combined in a voltaic pile or a battery.2, 3 

Table No. 1; the Electromotive Series16

Metal: Voltage Potential

• Lithium: -3.04 volts
• Calcium: -2.87 volts
• Magnesium: -2.37 volts
• Aluminum: -1.66 volts
• Zinc: -0.76 volts
• Chromium: -0.74 volts
• Iron: -0.44 volts
• Hydrogen: 0.00 volts
• Copper: +0.34 volts
• Silver: +0.80 volts
• Gold: +1.68 volts

The Voltaic pile of 1800. This first dependable, continuous source of D.C. electrical current.16Volta’s first, practical, voltaic pile consisted of alternating layers of zinc and copper separated by brine soaked cardboard to which a small amount of dilute sulfuric acid was added.2, 3, 5, 16

As a member of The French Institute of Science; the most prestigious scientific society of its day, Alessandra Volta travelled to France in 1801, where he demonstrated the Voltaic Pile before scientific colleagues and members of the Institute at the court of French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte.5, 16 

Volta’s Law or the Law of Electromotive Force states that the amount of electricity a battery will generate is proportional to the difference between the electrochemical potentials of the two metals used as its electrodes.16 To this day, electrical voltage is named in Volta’s honor for his discoveries and contributions. Likewise, the principle of Galvanic Action; wherein oxidation occurs at the anode and reduction occurs at the cathode, is named to honor Luigi Galvani.16 

Luigi Brunatelli; the First Electroplater

Luigi Brugnatelli16A colleague of Alessandro Volta, also a member of the French Institute of Science, Italian chemist, Luigi Brugnatelli, traveled to Paris in 1801 where he witnessed Volta’s demonstration of the voltaic pile.5 Intrigued with the device and proposing chemical experiments to be carried out with electricity, Brugnatelli was chartered; under the auspices of the French Institute of Science and funded by the French government of Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte. He experimented with the voltaic pile at his chemical laboratory, upon returning to Italy.5 Four years later in 1805; Luigi Brugnatelli, became the first person to electroplate another item.5 

Brugnatelli electroplated gold onto two silver medallions, by connecting them in series to a gold anode.5, 13 All of the items were immersed in a brine solution and connected to a voltaic pile.5, 13 The work; done under the auspices of the French Academy of Science, was ordered by Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte to remain a secret. This proclamation prohibited Brugnatelli from publishing of his scientific breakthrough; essentially, the development of electroplating. Thus suppressed, his work remained unknown for several decades until, he was allowed to publish a treatise on his electroplating developments in The Belgian Journal of Physics and Chemistry.13

The Contributions of Michael Faraday

Michael Faraday16The suppression of Brugnatelli’s developments prevented the discovery from being known in scientific literature and as a result the science of electroplating was reinvented in England. To that end, investigatory work on electricity; continued in London, during the 1820s and 1830s at the laboratory of famed English scientist; Sir Humphry Davy.13 A protégé in Davy’s laboratory was chemist; Michael Faraday.11 

In 1833, Faraday made some interesting observations during some of his experiments.3, 4, 5, 13 Those observations led to the establishment of the laws of modern electroplating. To this day the law’s still bear his name and establish electroplating operations on firm scientific principles.11 They are the basis for every electrolytic electroplating operation in use to this very day. 

Faraday’s First Law of Electrodeposition: The amount of chemical change produced by an electric current; (i.e. the amount of metal deposited cathodically or dissolved anodically,) is proportional to the quantity of electricity passed through the plating bath.2, 3, 11

Simply stated; Faraday’s first law says, that if you apply more current to the bath, you’ll deposit more metal.16

Faraday’s Second Law of Electrodeposition: The weight of different metals deposited or dissolved by the same quantity of electricity is proportional to their chemical equivalent weights.2, 3, 11

Simply stated; Faraday’s second law says, if the current remains the same different metals deposit to different depths during the same period of time dependent upon their equivalent weight or valency.16 So for the non-chemists among us the question is, “What is a metal’s equivalent weight?”

The equivalent weight of a metal is simply its atomic weight; as found on the periodic chart, divided by its valence.11 For example; nickel has the atomic weight of 58.70 grams and a normal valence of 2. Therefore its equivalent weight is 58.70 grams divided by 2, or 29.35 grams.11 Silver has an atomic weight of 108.87 grams and a valence of one, therefore, it has an equivalent weight of 108.87 grams divided by one, or 108.87 grams.11

By combining Faraday’s first and second laws we are able to create the Metal Deposition Formula.3, 11

Metal Deposition Formula3, 11

M = (I)(t)(E)(1/F) where:

• M = Metal weight in grams deposited
• I = current in amps
• t = time in hours
• E = the metal’s equivalent weight
• 1/F = amp hour equivalent

But what is 1/F the amp hour equivalent? Faraday noted that a current of 1 amp for 1 second deposits 0.001118 grams of silver. Silver has an equivalent wt. of 107.87 grams. By dividing silver’s equivalent weight of 107.78 grams by 0.001118 g of silver per second Faraday determined that to deposit 107.78 grams of silver would require 96,494 amp seconds.2, 3, 11 This has since been round up to 96,500 amp seconds for convenience. In electroplating, amp seconds are referred to as coulombs and the standard of 96,500 coulombs is called 1 Faraday in honor of the scientist.11

John Wright and the Elkingtons

George Elkington1635-years after Italian chemist; Luigi Brugnatelli first electroplated two silver medallions with gold, Birmingham, England based tableware and jewelry manufacturer; John Wright discovered that potassium cyanide was a suitable electrolyte for gold and silver electroplating.4, 5, 13 Other inventors in Birmingham England were also tinkering with the technology at the time4, 5, 13 but it was Wright who first published and was awarded a patent for the technique. A report detailing Wright’s patent was published in a 1840 edition of The Birmingham Jewelry Quarterly.4, 5, 14 With that publication the spread of the knowledge related to the science of electroplating was begun. Wright is sometimes erroneously crediting as the developer of electroplating; a false claim as the credit goes to Brugnatelli for his work in 1805, Wright was simply the first to publish an account of the technology as Brugnatelli’s work was suppressed by French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte.16

Ad for Elkington Electro Plate.10At the time; as it is often done today, electroplating was simply a means to reduce cost. Items could be made inexpensively from a basis metal then decoratively electroplated so as to appear that they were manufactured in whole, from the precious metal.13, 14

Electroplating patent owner; John Wright, was a business partner with Elkington brothers Henry and George at the trio’s Birmingham-based tableware and jewelry enterprise. Recognizing the value of the patent, the Elkington’s purchased the rights to the gold and silver potassium cyanide electroplating technique from their partner John Wright and bought-out his interest in the tableware and jewelry business.12

Now, as owners of the patent, the Elkington brothers, opened the world’s first electroplating job shop. Renaming their business the Elkington Plating Works they also continued to manufacture their fine-line of tableware and jewelry and additionally accepted gold and silver electroplating job shop work.

Lithograph of the Elkington Plating Room.5Holding a virtual monopoly with the gold and silver electroplating patent rights the Elkington Plating Works prospered significantly from the original Wright patent and enjoyed the rights and privileges the patent afforded to them for the years of its exclusivity. Thus with a head start over others in the field of commercial decorative electroplating, the Elkington Plating Works meteoric growth peaked with a workforce of some 1,000 employees by 1890.12 Its original building still stands today in Birmingham.10, 16

The Woolrich Generator

Since the voltaic pile was essentially; a battery, its disadvantage would be the loss of D.C. current and an interruption to the plating cycle when its anodic material depleted. By 1844, the voltaic pile was replaced by a more reliable D.C. power source, the Woolrich Generator.10 

Woolrich Generator Birmingham Science Museum, Birmingham, England.10In 1842, chemist; John Stephen Woolrich, patented his idea for a D.C. electrical generator. Two years later in February, 1844 his newly created company; The Magneto Works Co., sold its first D.C. generator to the Birmingham tableware company Thomas Prime & Sons, for the silver electroplating of tableware and hollowware.10

The Woolrich generator was a magneto-type generator using permanent magnets to create the magnetic field in which the windings rotate.10 In contrast, most generators use electromagnets in which a current flows through a coil to create the magnet field. Electromagnets can produce stronger fields; and importantly, the field can be varied to adjust the voltage generated.10 Electroplating requires a direct current, so the Woolrich generator was fitted with an early commutator.10

Nickel as a Replacement for Silver Plate; Dr. R. Bottger & the First Nickel Bath

About this time, 1840–1844, an interest developed in the replacement of silver electroplate with nickel electroplate. The primary advantage was that nickel was less expensive to purchase than silver. Then, as is now, overhead cost savings were an important part of any business’ profitability. 

In 1843, German physician turned electroplating scientist; Dr. R. Bottger, developed the first practical formulation for the electroplating of nickel.2, 5 Bottger’s aqueous solution of nickel and ammonium sulfate remained the basic nickel electroplating formulation for the next 70 years.5

William H. Remington Anode Baskets

In Boston, MA in 1866; businessman; William H. Remington additionally realized a second advantage to nickel electroplating vs. silver electroplating that being, a nickel electroplated coating could be buffed to a mirror reflective condition.16 Due to its anti-corrosive properties the nickel coating would remain bright, reflective and lustrous. Whereas silver and silver electroplate have to be routinely buffed as they continuously tarnish.16 

That year, Remington established the William H. Remington Co. for the decorative electroplating of nickel and silver.5 Remington contributed to the advancement of the science, with his 1868 invention of the anode basket.5 Remington received U.S. Patent No. 82,877 in Oct. 1868 for the device.16 

Dr. Isaac Adams; Job Shop Nickel

Dr. Isaac Adams Jr.5Born in Boston, MA in 1836, Isaac Adams Jr. attended Bowdoin College in Brunswick, ME from which he received his Bachelors Degree in 1858.5 He then attended Harvard Medical School receiving his MD in 1862 which he followed with two additional years of study at the Êcole de Médicine in France.5 Returning to Boston he opened his medical practice; which he abandoned for reasons unknown, just two-years later in 1866.

He then opened a chemistry laboratory in Boston and delved into the topic of the day for electroplaters; the advancement of nickel electroplating.5 Employing the R. Bottger nickel plating bath of 1843, in just three years of experimentation, Dr. Adams developed an improved nickel electroplating procedure.5, 12

Dr. Adams received U.S. Patent No. 98,157 on August 8, 1869 for Improvements to the Electro-Deposition of Nickel.5, 12 In his improved bath Adams substituted the double salt of nickel ammonium sulfate for Bottger’s use of the single salt of ammonium sulfate. Adams also enhanced bath performance by maintaining the bath pH value at 45, 14 with the periodic addition of sulfuric acid. 

Notes from Dr. Adams’ laboratory notebook from July 26, 1866.5With a bath pH value of 4, Adams was able to temper the generation of ammonium hydroxide, the result of oxygen generation at the anode. He found that the higher pH value lowered cathode efficiency and embrittled the nickel plate.5 With patent in hand Adams purchased the William H. Remington Co. in Boston in 1869 and renamed it the Boston Nickel Plating Co.5, 16 There he employed his new nickel plating bath and continued to commercially electroplate silver on a job shop basis. 

Three years later; in 1872, he opened the first, commercial, exclusively nickel-plating job shop in the U.S. That company; which he named the Adams Plating & Manufacturing Co., was located in the town of South Windham, CT.5 Adams additionally adopted Remington’s use of anode baskets to hold the bath’s anodes.5

Dr. Isaac Adams Jr. is credited with being the father of nickel plating in the United States.5, 14 

Dr. Edward Weston and Boric Acid

Dr. Edward WestonBorn in England in 1850, Dr. Edward Weston; also trained as a physician, but turned awy his medical training. Landing in New York City in 1870, he too soon began experimenting with nickel electroplating improvements.5, 13

Unable to determine an end-around to bypass Adams’ patent, Weston was nonetheless, the first person to introduce boric acid into a nickel plating bath to minimize nickel oxide formation. His technology was awarded a U.S. patent in 1878.5, 16

Dr. Wilhelm Pfanhauser and Chloride

Working on further improvements to the nickel plating bath in Austria, Dr. Wilhelm Pfanhauser, published in 1900, his work on nickel plating baths wherein ammonium chloride was added to the bath.5 

Dr. Wilhelm Pfanhauser16Dr. Pfanhauser found that the addition of chloride to the bath, aided in nickel anode corrosion. By increasing the corrosion rate he found that more dissolved nickel metal would be available in the bath. This of course increased the efficiency of deposition.5

Dr. O.P. Watts and the Watts Plating Bath

Into this cacophony of emerging research, patent filings, legal patent defense claims, the use of boric acid to maintain pH and the recognition of chloride salts as an anode corrosion enhancement tool, stepped Dr. O.P. Watts at the University of Wisconsin.1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 15, 17, 21

Having received his PhD in 1905 from the University of Wisconsin, Dr. Watts; spent the next 11-years tinkering with; initially cobalt, but later nickel plating baths. His landmark paper; “Rapid Nickel Plating,” was published in the Transactions of the American Electrochemical Society in April, 1916.4, 5 With the publication of this paper the blueprint was laid for the truly modern nickel plating bath, the bath that is most commonly in use around the world today. Today the modern nickel plating bath is known as the Watts Nickel Bath in Dr. Watts’ honor.4, 5, 13, 14, 17

Dr. Oliver P. Watts in his laboratory at the Univ. of Wisconsin.5,16Taking advantage of Weston’s previous discovery of boric acid to maintain nickel bath pH and Pfanhauser’s 1900 addition of chloride salts to foster anode corrosion Dr. Watts’ made two significant breakthroughs. First, he elevating the nickel bath’s operating temperature5 and secondly, he realized if he could substitute nickel chloride for ammonium chloride to maintain good anode corrosion.5 

A galvanic cell carries electrical current efficiently when there are sufficient dissolved salts in solution to conduct the current. Using nickel chloride for anode corrosion not only increased the amount of nickel cations available for deposition but additionally maintained the chloride anion for anode dissolution. As a result of these changes, the Watts Nickel plating bath has a much higher level of dissolved nickel salts when compared to the earlier nickel baths of Bottger and Adams.2, 3, 4, 5, 15, 19 

Table No. 2

Typical Make-up of a Watts Nickel Plating Bath1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 15, 17, 18, 19, 20

• Constituent: Concentration
• Nickel Sulfate  35 – 40 oz./gal
• Nickel Chloride: 10 – 14 oz./gal
• Nickel Meta: 9 – 10 oz./gal
• Boric Acid: 6 – 7 oz./gal
• pH: 3.5 - 4.0
• Temperature: 140°F

Where:

• The sulfate is the main source of platable nickel
• The chloride is present to aid in anode corrosion thereby replacing cathodically deposited nickel
• The boric is present to buffer the bath’s pH

Elevating the bath’s operating temperature to 140°F; and even as high as 160°F in some applications, coupled with the higher concentration of dissolved nickel salts for electrical efficiency Dr. Watts created a nickel bath that could accept a much higher, applied, DC electrical current without cathode D.C. burn.4, 5, 7, 17 Additionally, the higher concentration of salts permitted an increase of throwing power in low current density areas. By increasing current in the bath Dr. Watts was able to deposit more nickel per hour in his bath; in accordance with Faraday’s First Law.3, 4, 14 Looked at from a different angle, Dr. Watts was able to achieve a desired nickel thickness more rapidly because the bath was more electrolytically efficient.16

Bright Nickel Plating

Semi-bright nickel deposits are bright but not reflective.3, 4 The deposits are white, matte and malleable.3, 4, 5, 13, 19 Prior to the introduction of brightening agents to the nickel plating bath, this matte and malleable nickel deposit would have to be hand-buffed to achieve a mirror-reflective finish. This was prior to the introduction chrome plating to meet the rise in the popularity of automotive bright trim in the 1930s.3, 4, 14, 21 

Considering the cost of the hand labor; even in the late 1920s and early 1930s required to achieve the improved mirror-reflective finish, the search was on to develop a nickel bath capable of generating a mirror-reflective appearance as the nickel was being deposited.14 

Max Schloetter16Working at the plating supply company he founded in Berlin, Germany in 1912, scientist and entrepreneur; Max Schloetter, discovered in 1930 that the introduction of the organic aromatic sulfonate compound; sodium benzene disulfonate, would generate a dramatically improved, hard, smooth, mirror-reflective finish to what was formerly a semi-bright nickel plated deposit.2, 3, 4, 5, 14

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In 1932, Schloetter filed for a U.S. Patent and in 1933 he was granted U.S. Patent No. 1,972,693 for his bright nickel plating additive.5 He began advertising his bright nickel plating process in assorted German trade journals on December 1, 1933.5 In 1934, Schloetter sold the rights to the Schloetter Process to The Pyrene Manuf. Co. in the U.S. which began marketing the first practical bright nickel plating bath as Pyrene High Gloss Nickel in 1934.5, 14 

Also in 1934, Mr. Virgil Waite; with the McGean Chemical Co. filed a patent on the use of aromatic sulfonates coupled with the use of cadmium and/or zinc as brightening agents.6 This development was the first of the bright nickel solutions better known today in which separately added control agents and brightening agents are added to the bath.6

The Electroplaters’ Society

Assoc. Founder Charles Henry Proctor11, 12On March 6, 1909, Charles Henry Proctor, the plating and foundry supervisor at the F.H. Lovell Co. in Arlington, NJ; achieved his long a dream and inspired a meeting of some two-dozen foremen platers.12, 17 

Their meeting; held at the old Hotel Chelsea in New York City, was for the purpose of creating a non-profit association to foster the advancement of electroplating, metal finishing and allied arts.12, 17

Out of their thinking and planning the National Electroplaters Association of the United States and Canada was formalized or NEPA, came into being at an organizational meeting held at the same Chelsea Hotel on Saturday, April, 10, 1909.12, 17 

For his organization efforts and prescience members selected Charles Henry Proctor; NEPA president. Proctor presided at that first meeting, at which the infant organization approved its constitution and by-laws.17 The 60 charter members at this meeting were a doubling of number present at the meeting; just one month previously. NEPA was incorporated as a New York Corporation on October 18, 1909.12, 17

From its inception, NEPA was a technical-educational society with its principal reasons being:

1. “To advance and disseminate knowledge concerning the art of electrode-position of metals.
2. To maintain a laboratory equipped for research work.
3. To conduct meetings for the purpose of presenting papers on appropriate technical and scientific subjects and
4. To publish technical literature.”12

Chelsea Hotel, NYC, circa 1920. 9, 12The first NEPA Banquet was held January 15, 1910.12, 17 By 1912 NEPA became international chartering a branch in Toronto, Ontario. The NEPAs third annual banquet in 1912 featured the first exhibit of suppliers’ products. It was the precursor to today’s SUR/FIN conferences.16 

In 1913; was reorganized. It adopted as its name the American Electroplaters Society or AES. The reorganization was made to further meet its mission and growing membership. At the 1913 Annual Banquet, the AES constitution and by-laws were adopted and George B. Hogaboom was elected first AES president.12, 17 

George Hogaboom; a charter member of the society was a Connecticut based foreman plater who is best remembered for co-authoring with Dr. William Blum, the electroplater primer still used today entitled “The Principles of Electroplating and Electroforming.”1 

NEPA logo 1909-1913.16, 17AES remained the legacy society for 72-years and adopted as its logo, the three intertwined AES letters surrounded by the society’s name American Electroplaters Society.

By 1985, the society morphed yet again. In recognition of the society’s 75th or “Diamond Jubilee” anniversary and the changing work environment of membership; which had expanded beyond just electroplaters and now consisted of individuals who were involved in all aspects of surface finishing, the society’s name and logo were again changed.16 

The society’s new name was the American Electroplaters’ and Surface Finishers Society; or more conveniently just AESF. The new logo included the society’s AESF moniker; in gold font, atop of a stylized blue diamond background; symbolic of the legacy society’s diamond jubilee.16

AES Logo; 1913–1985.16With the advent of personal computers, the availability of information on line, the diminishing influence of “old timers” and the increase in retirees there came a diminution in societal attendance at the branch and national levels. Falling membership levels and the resultant dues funding lead to a near bankruptcy of the society by the early to mid-2000s. However a dedicated team of AESF loyalists; who understood the historical significance of the society and the camaraderie of fellow membership, were able to reorganize the society into its current format. 

In 2007, AESF was reorganized as the National Association for Surface Finishing or NASF, upon a merger with the National Association of Metal Finishers (NAMF) and the Metal Finishing Suppliers Association (MFSA). Both the NAMF and the MFSA, proud legacy equals to the AESF, were suffering from the same membership ills. It seemed and remains a logical merger of the societies all of which have as a common core; metal finishing.16

A new NASF logo was adopted and Ray Lucas from Valley Chrome in Clovis, CA, was selected as the association's first president. In addition, the AESF Foundation was formed to serve as the society’s educational bulwark.

About The Author: William Nebiolo received a B.A. from The University of Connecticut and an M.S. in environmental sciences from Long Island University. He has been with REM Surface Engineering since 1989 and serves as a sales engineer and as product manager. Since 1978, Nebiolo has been an active member in the NASF, where he has represented the Connecticut chapter as an NASF national delegate and is the 2010, 2014, and 2015 recipient of the NASF National Award of Merit. From 1996 to 2000, he served as one of SME’s Mass Finishing technical training program instructors. He has published and presented dozens of technical papers and is the author of the SME Mass Finishing Training Book. Nebiolo can be reached at bnebiolo@remchem.com.

References

1. Blum, William PhD, Hogaboom, G.B.; “Principles of Electroplating and Electroforming”; 3rd Edition; 1949; McGraw-Hill Book Co.

2. DiBari, Dr. George A.; Practical Nickel Plating: An AES Illustrated Lecture, The American Electroplaters’ Society Inc.; Newark, NJ; 1973; pp. 1-30

3. DiBari, Dr. George A., Dr. R.A. Covert; Nickel Electroplating: An AESF Educational Course; The American Electroplaters and Surface Finishers Society; Orlando, FL; 1992; pp. 1-32

4. DiBari, Dr. George A.; Chapter 3 “Electrodeposition of Nickel”; Modern Electroplating; edited by Schlesinger M. Paunaovic M.; John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New Jersey; 2010; pp. 79-114 

5. Dubpernell, Dr. George; “The Story of Nickel Plating”; Plating, Vol. (46) 6; 1959; pp. 599-616

6. DuRose, Arthur H., The 11th William Blum Lecture, 57th Annual AES Convention of the American Electroplaters’ Society, June 22, 1970, Montreal, QB

7. Gianelos, Louis; “Troubleshooting of Nickel Plating Solutions (AES Update: Part I of III – Part Series on Nickel); Plating & Surface Finishing; Vol. (64) 8; 1977; pp. 32-34

8. Giorio, B.; www.silvercollection.it Englaprime; Thomas Prime & Sons, 2017

9. Gonne, Maude, New York as it Was, Pinterest web pin, New York City Historic Buildings, 2018

10. Grace’s Guide to British Industrial History, www.gracesguide.co.uk/elkington, website, 2017

11. LaManna, Flavio, J.; The Fundamentals of Chemistry for Electroplaters; Electroplating Course Manual; Chapter 2; The Newark Branch of the American Electroplaters’ Society; 1980

12. Lindsay, James H. PhD, AESF Fellow; Editor Plating and Surface Finishing; 2005, Oct.

13. McKay, R.J.; “The History of Nickel Plating Developments in the U.S.A., Part I,” Plating; (38) 1; 1951; pp. 41-44 & p. 57

14. McKay, R.J.; “The History of Nickel Plating Developments in the U.S.A., Part II,” Plating; (38) 2; 1951; pp. 147-156

15. McMullen, Warren H.; “Chapter 8: Nickel Plating”; Electroplating Course Manual; Basic Practical Electroplating; Edition No. 8; The Newark Branch of The American Electroplaters’ Society; 1980; pp. 110-129

16. Nebiolo, William P.; 2017; NASF New England Regional; Salem, MA; The History of Electroplating

17. Nichols, John P.; Kaleidoscope of AES’s First Half Century; Plating, 1959, Vol. 46, Issue 6, p. 650

18. Oniciu L., L. Muresan; Some Fundamental Aspects of Leveling and Brightening of Metal Electrodeposition”; Journal of Applied Electrochemistry, Vol. (21) 29; 1991, pp. 565-574

19. Read, Harold J., R. Weil; Grain Size and Hardness of Nickel Plate as Related to Brightness; Plating; (37) 12; 1950; pp. 1257-1261

20. Saubestre, Edward B.; “The Chemistry of Watts Nickel Plating Solutions”; Plating, Vol. (45) 9; 1958; pp. 927-936

21. Saubestre, Edward B.; “The Chemistry of Bright Nickel Plating Solutions”; Plating; Vol. (45)12; 1958; pp. 1219-1227

22. The Metal Industry Co., The Metal Industry, Vol. 5, June 1907, p. 167

Electroplating is used in a wide variety of modern industrial and commercial applications, using the power of electricity to deposit metal on the surface of various types of objects. The object acts as the cathode, while the material to be coated serves as an anode, which is oxidized by the charge and reduced and deposited on the cathode. While this may seem to be an advanced technique fitting of the modern era, this process actually dates back to the early 19th century. The result of thousands of years of technological development and discovery, electroplating has evolved further over the past two centuries to become a staple of several industries, applied in ways that the inventors couldn’t dream of. This article covers the history of electroplating — how it was developed, who invented electroplating, and how it has changed over the years to become what it is today.

Quick Links

The Buildup to Electroplating | Who Invented Gold Plating??

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The Buildup to Electroplating

Electroplating may be the most recent way of depositing metal onto a surface, but the need to coat objects with metal has existed for thousands of years. Whether for decoration or functionality, early civilization used multiple methods to apply metal to surfaces, with their techniques and efforts eventually leading to the development of electroplating. The key periods and associated practices are listed below:

• Bronze Age: The Bronze Age lasted from the fourth through the second millennium BCE. While corrosion has made it difficult to accurately date the finishing techniques discovered, archaeologists estimate that the first instances of metal inlays date from the third millennium BCE. In these finds from the Middle East and Egypt, metal foil and wire were inlaid into grooves, wrapped around or crimped onto objects to change their physical appearance. Over time, the layers seem to have gotten thinner, with finds from the second millennium BCE using metal leaf instead of foil to decorate statues.
• Iron Age: The Iron Age lasted from the 12th to the fifth century BCE and saw the first instances of complete plating of objects, achieved in ancient Greece by applying metal foil and wire around an entire object.

• Roman Period: The Romans appear to be the first to use displacement plating to coat objects. In the Early Roman period between the first and fourth century CE, artifacts show evidence of electrochemical plating achieved using the natural potential difference between different types of metal. Another coating method, mercury gilding, was developed around the same time. Though mercury gilding was invented Central Asia, Pliny the Elder was the first to describe the process in the first century CE. In this process, also called fire gilding, small pieces of gold were mixed with mercury in a one-to-eight ratio, creating a viscous amalgam that could be brushed onto the surface of a substrate. Once complete, the object was then heated until the mercury vaporized, leaving behind the gold plating. This technique was also called the Lost Apprentice Technique because the process created toxic mercury fumes, which, when combined with poor ventilation, resulted in mercury poisoning that destroyed the sanity of and then killed gilders after about four coatings.
• Medieval Period: The medieval period between the fifth and 15th centuries saw an expansion of techniques developed during the Roman Period. In the ninth century, Europeans developed displacement plating techniques for iron armor, which plated the surface of the armor with copper to prepare it for mercury gilding. Damascene was also developed during this period, named after Damascus, Syria, where it was most commonly seen. This inlay technique involved cutting a design into a substrate metal, then cutting and hammering a decorative metal into the substrate. False damascene was also developed, which uses a similar process but involves scoring the substrate metal instead of cutting into it.
• Renaissance: The Renaissance period from the 15th to the 17th century saw further development of displacement plating — clock dials, for example, were plated with silver using silvering salts as pastes and solutions.

• Industrial Revolution: While previous techniques used displacement plating and set the groundwork for the development of electroplating, the true origin of electroplating came during the Industrial Revolution, which took place between the late 18th and early 19th century. Alessandro Volta invented what was functionally the first electric battery in 1800. Named after Volta, the voltaic pile stacked galvanic cells to produce an electric current. Volta’s invention was lauded by French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte, who made Volta a count for his work. This key invention was the catalyst needed to take displacement plating to the next level, which occurred shortly after Volta’s invention.

Who Invented Gold Plating?

After Volta invented and published his findings on his electrochemical batteries, many people began to experiment with the technique to discover new applications. It was in the subsequent decades that electroplating was born. However, there are several important names and events associated with the invention and initial development of electroplating — the major time periods and events are described below:

• 1800-1804: Cruikshank first describes electroplating. British scientist William Cruickshank first reported on electroplating in 1801. In his publication, Cruickshank described his experiment of depositing dendritic metallic lead and copper onto a surface using Volta piles. Cruickshank achieved this by attaching silver wires to the top and bottom layers of the Volta pile and placing the ends in an acetate solution, then a copper solution in subsequent experiments. As a result, fine needles of metallic material deposited on the bottom of the volta pile. However, while Cruickshank’s experiment was the first reported incident of electroplating, he is not credited with the invention of electroplating, since the technique wasn’t fully explored for another couple of years.

• 1805-1830: Brugnatelli invents electroplating. Luigi Brunatelli, an Italian chemist, is most widely credited for inventing electroplating. Brugnatelli published his findings on the use of Volta piles to deposit a layer of gold onto a metallic surface in 1805. Using a similar technique to that used by Cruickshank, Brugnatelli plated gold onto silver medals by submerging them in an “ammoniuret of gold” and applying a charge using a Volta pile. The Belgian Journal of Physics and Chemistry published his findings, but his work was not well-received in the wider scientific community. While Napoleon celebrated Volta’s, the French Emperor disapproved of Brugnatelli’s work. In Napoleon’s view, this discovery would make gold plating accessible to the lower class, which was unacceptable in his opinion. Napoleon’s disapproval subsequently barred Brugnatelli’s work from the French Academy of Sciences, preventing it from reaching the wider scientific community.

• 1830-1840: The Elkingtons patent several electroplating processes. After Brugnatelli’s effective silencing, electroplating was largely forgotten for decades. The process didn’t resurface until the 1830s, when several scientists rediscovered it independently. In 1839, Russian and British inventors developed processes to electroplate copper printing plates, and British inventor John Wright realized he could use potassium cyanide as an electrolyte for electroplating. In 1840, Wright began working with the Elkington cousins, George and Henry, who bought Wright’s patent and received several more for similar electroplating processes using gold and silver. The Elkingtons found commercial success plating silverware and manufacturing decorative products, including the flatware aboard the RMS Titanic when it sank.

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With the efforts of these and more individuals, electroplating finally broke into the scene. Very quickly, it was clear that electroplating was perfectly poised to take over the market due to the trends of the Industrial Revolution combined with the rise of the British Empire.

The Gilded Age of Electroplating

Electroplating was enormously popular immediately after it was patented by the Elkingtons. By the 1850s, Elkington & Co. had experienced widespread success due to the popularity of plating various surfaces with gold, silver, copper and other metals. But why did the Elkingtons prevail where Brugnatelli failed, and why was electroplating it so immediately popular? There are several reasons:

• Newly rich populations: With the Industrial Revolution came a new wealthy class, made so by the expansion of factories and the abundance of work opportunities in cities. It became fashionable to show off this wealth by any means necessary, and the ornate styles of the recent Baroque and Rococo periods seemed fitting. Products reminiscent of these stylistic periods could be made more cheaply using manufacturing techniques and electroplating, making them more widely affordable and accessible.
• Russian aristocracy: While Western Europe’s masses clamored to get plated products, Russia experienced a similar rush for gold electroplating among its religious and economic elite. The Eastern Orthodox Church invested heavily in gilded icon cases, statues and other decorations for their churches, while the Romanov royal family showed off their enormous wealth with gold plated items throughout their properties.

• Inventions in electricity: In 1871, Belgian inventor Zénobe Gramme created a direct current generator that used rotary motion. The Gramme dynamo allowed electroplating to become even more affordable and accessible, with an increasing number of electroplating businesses cropping up across Europe.
• Expansion of the British Empire: The late 19th century saw a huge expansion of the British Empire across the world, and electroplating quickly followed wherever the Empire went. The spread of British culture, inventions and fashions also spread the popularity of electroplated items to populations that otherwise wouldn’t have used the technology.

While these factors allowed electroplating to flourish very quickly in the 19th century, several problems arose that hindered its growth. Most notable among these was the fact that electroplating was considered a trade, not a science. As a result, plating formulas and processes were considered trade secrets and were closely guarded. This jealous hoarding of information prevented ideas and research from freely passing between producers, making electroplating processes unreliable and irreproducible. This practice continued throughout the 19th century and into the early 20th century, resulting in a decline of quality and innovation in the electroplating industry.

The 20th Century Overhaul

By the beginning of the 20th century, the electroplating industry had effectively come to a standstill — industry leaders refused to share information, scientists barely understood the process, and innovation was practically nonexistent. However, the 20th century was a time of change for many industries, and electroplating was no exception.

• 1900-1913: Electroplating becomes a science. To remedy the current problems facing the electroplating industry, the American Electrochemical Society, the predecessor of The Electrochemical Society, held a symposium in 1913 regarding the electrodeposition of metals. The Society hired Francis C. Frary and gave him a grant to compile all recipes relating to the plating of gold and silver using electrolytic processes. By the end of his research period, Dr. Frary had compiled 193 recipes from German, French, British and American sources, all of which were presented and published. This publication marked a turning point in the history of electroplating, marking the point where electroplating became a science rather than a trade secret.
• 1914-1939: The world ignores electroplating. Despite the fact that electroplating had become more reproducible, the practice fell out of favor with the world at large. The new middle class had grown used to their wealth and no longer tried to show it off with gilded decorations, and the Soviet revolution ended the excesses of the Romanov family. In the following decades, wars and economic depressions further reduced the popularity of gold electroplating on the wider market, as the industry focused instead on supporting the war effort.

• 1940-1969: The Gilded Revival. In the 1940s, the electroplating process changed significantly for the first time since Wright patented it. A surge in the electronics industry increased the use of gold electroplating in electric circuits due to its excellent conductivity and corrosion resistance. The increase in popularity prompted scientists to develop safer, more effective electroplating methods that didn’t use the dangerous cyanide baths used in previous decades. As a result, the industry replaced its cyanide baths with safer acid baths and started using gold electrolytes with no excess cyanide.

The progress of electroplating continued through the remainder of the 20th century and into the 21st, with particular focus placed on safety as well as an expansion of electroplating applications. The current age, the Silicon Age, officially began in 1970 and has seen the continued evolution of electroplating. Electroplating in the 1970s evolved toward safe water disposal in the face of environmental concerns while simultaneously upgrading associated hardware to help streamline the process. This helped the electroplating industry grow in size and scope, expanding the technology to a wide range of applications.

Modern Developments and Trends in Electroplating:

The old aesthetic applications of gold electroplating are still widely applicable in the modern world — in fact, the Elkington plating company still produces gold plated dinnerware. However, the continued development of technology within both the electroplating industry and the wider market has resulted in many electroplating opportunities that Brugnatelli couldn’t have possibly imagined when he first developed the technology in 1805. Some of the most notable developments are listed below:

• Computer chips: Computer chips represented a major turning point in the electroplating industry. IBM started using electroplating in the production of computer chips in the 1970s, as well as damascene techniques. This use of electroplating expanded over the subsequent decades, with gold electroplating being used on electrodes in fuel cells and on circuit board contacts as well as computer chips. In fact, electroplating is now used widely throughout the electronics industry for protective coatings, contacts and other applications. Further developments may see electroplating applied to even more advanced technologies, including nanotechnology.
• Electroless plating: While displacement plating has been around since the Roman period, electroless plating in a wider sense is a significantly newer development. While the subject had been studied in the mid-19th century, Abner Brenner and G.E. Riddell accidentally rediscovered electroless plating in 1944 while researching how to plate the inside of machine gun barrels. By experimenting with different levels of current, substrate, additives and other factors, they eventually discovered that nickel could be plated without electricity by using sodium hypophosphite as a source of electrons. Brenner published his findings in 1948, and electroless plating has since been used to deposit nickel, cobalt, copper, silver, gold or similar metals onto various substrates for a wide range of applications.
• Non-metal substrates: Plating onto non-metal substrates is another recent development that has gained a great deal of popularity due to its ability to instill fragile components with the physical and mechanical properties of metals. Some examples of non-metal substrates that can be plated include glass, plastic, ceramic and Kevlar. Many industries choose to plate these materials to achieve specific results — for example, the automotive industry often plates plastic to achieve lower car weights without sacrificing finish quality. When the plating process is complete, these plated materials are stronger, more durable, and more resistant to corrosion, making them more valuable to a variety of industries.

These developments are incredible and have made for massive changes in the industry at large. To make the most of these technologies, however, businesses need to work with plating companies that know electroplating from the inside out. Sharrett’s Plating Company can help.

Take Advantage of Electroplating Technology With SPC

Contemporary electroplating technologies look very different from the gilding techniques used centuries ago — the lethal gold mercury fire gilding process of the Roman period was replaced by the toxic gold-cyanide electroplating process of the Industrial Revolution, which again gave way to the reproducible, safer plating processes developed in the 20th century. From black art to trade secret to reproducible science, electroplating has undergone several evolutions over its long and storied history, and it will continue to evolve into the future.

Keep up with ever-changing electroplating processes with an industry leader that’s been plating for decades. Since 1925, Sharrett’s Plating Company has been providing industrial plating services to a wide range of industries, constantly updating our processes to meet the most recent standards and technological advances. From palladium plating to electroless nickel plating, our industrial plating capabilities include everything your company needs to succeed.

We offer customized plating and metal finishing services so that our customers can develop high-quality products while reducing their overall operating costs. From copper, silver and gold plating to metal alloy plating, we provide you with all the materials and maximum flexibility to get your job done. We can also handle a wide range of substrates — SPC is one of the few plating companies in the industry that can effectively alloy metals such as gold and nickel with titanium, and we have extensive experience plating metal onto plastics, ceramics and other non-metal substrates.

On top of it all, we are one of the most environmentally friendly metal plating services in operation, constantly working to improve our metal plating and finishing processes to preserve the environment while maximizing efficiency.

With SPC, you can trust that our services are as reliable and affordable as possible, no matter your industry or application. If you want to learn more about any of our services or the future of electroplating, we are ready to help. Contact us today for a free quote on your next product, and one of our customer service representatives will get back to you within a single business day!

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